Learn How Animals Are Classified

For centuries, the practice of naming and classifying living organisms into groups has been an integral part of the study of nature.  Aristotle (384BC-322BC) developed the first known method of classifying organisms, grouping organisms by their means of transport such as air, land, and water. A number of other naturalists followed with other classification systems. But it was Swedish botanist, Carolus (Carl) Linnaeus (1707-1778) that is considered to be the pioneer of modern taxonomy. In his book Systema Naturae, first published in 1735, Carl Linnaeus introduced a rather clever way to classify and name organisms. This system, now referred to as Linnaean taxonomy, has been used to varying extents, ever since. About Linnaean Taxonomy Linnaean taxonomy categorizes organisms into a hierarchy of kingdoms, classes, orders, families, genera, and species based on shared physical characteristics. The category of phylum was added to the classification scheme later, as a hierarchical level just beneath kingdom. Groups at the top of the hierarchy (kingdom, phylum, class) are more broad in definition and contain a greater number of organisms than the more specific groups that are lower in the hierarchy (families, genera, species). By assigning each group of organisms to a kingdom, phylum, class, family, genus, and species, they can then be uniquely characterized. Their membership in a group tells us about the traits they share with other members of the group, or the traits that make them unique when compared to organisms in groups to which they do not belong. Many scientists still use the Linnaean classification system to some extent today, but it is no longer the only method for grouping and characterizing organisms. Scientists now have many different ways of identifying organisms and describing how they relate to each other. To best understand the science of classification, it will help to first examine a few basic terms: classification - the systematic grouping and naming of organisms based on shared structural similarities, functional similarities, or evolutionary historytaxonomy - the science of classifying organisms (describing, naming, and categorizing organisms)systematics - the study of the diversity of life and the relationships between organisms Types of Classification Systems With an understanding of classification, taxonomy, and systematics, we can now examine the different types of classifications systems that are available. For instance, you can classify organisms according to their structure, placing organisms that look similar in the same group. Alternatively, you can classify organisms according to their evolutionary history, placing organisms that have a shared ancestry in the same group. These two approaches are referred to as phenetics and cladistics and are defined as follows: phenetics  - a method of classifying organisms that is based on their overall similarity in physical characteristics or other observable traits (it does not take phylogeny into account)cladistics  - a method of analysis (genetic analysis, biochemical analysis, morphological analysis) that determines relationships between organisms that are based solely on their evolutionary history In general, Linnaean taxonomy uses  phenetics  to classify organisms. This means it relies on physical characteristics or other observable traits to classify organisms and does consider the evolutionary history of those organisms. But keep in mind that similar physical characteristics are often the product of shared evolutionary history, so Linnaean taxonomy (or phenetics) sometimes reflects the evolutionary background of a group of organisms. Cladistics  (also called phylogenetics or phylogenetic systematics) looks to the evolutionary history of organisms to form the underlying framework for their classification. Cladistics, therefore, differs from phenetics in that it is based on  phylogeny  (the evolutionary history of a group or lineage), not on the observation of physical similarities. Cladograms When characterizing the evolutionary history of a group of organisms, scientists develop tree-like diagrams called cladograms. These diagrams consist of a series of branches and leaves that represent the evolution of groups of organisms through time. When a group splits into two groups, the cladogram displays a node, after which the branch then proceeds in different directions. Organisms are located as leaves (at the ends of the branches).   Biological Classification Biological classification is in a continual state of flux. As our knowledge of organisms expands, we gain a better understanding of the similarities and differences among various groups of organisms. In turn, those similarities and differences shape how we assign animals to the various groups (taxa). taxon  (pl. taxa) - taxonomic unit, a group of organisms that has been named Factors That Shaped High-Order Taxonomy The invention of the microscope in the mid-sixteenth century revealed a minute world filled with countless new organisms that had previously escaped classification because they were too tiny to see with the naked eye. Throughout the past century, rapid advances in evolution and genetics (as well as a host of related fields such as cell biology, molecular biology, molecular genetics, and biochemistry, to name just a few) constantly reshape our understanding of how organisms relate to one another and shed new light on previous classifications. Science is constantly reorganizing the branches and leaves of the tree of life. The vast changes to a classification that have occurred throughout the history of taxonomy can best be understood by examining how the highest level taxa (domain, kingdom, phylum) have changed throughout history. The history of taxonomy stretches back to the 4th century BC, to the times of Aristotle and before. Since the first classification systems emerged, dividing the world of life into various groups with various relationships, scientists have grappled with the task of keeping classification in sync with scientific evidence. The sections that follow provide a summary of the changes that have taken place at the highest level of biological classification over the history of taxonomy. Two Kingdoms (Aristotle, during 4th century BC) Classification system based on:  Observation (phenetics) Aristotle was among the first to document the division of life forms into animals and plants. Aristotle classified animals according to observation, for example, he defined high-level groups of animals by whether or not they had red blood (this roughly reflects the division between vertebrates and invertebrates used today). Plantae  - plantsAnimalia  - animals Three Kingdoms (Ernst Haeckel, 1894) Classification system based on:  Observation (phenetics) The three kingdom system, introduced by Ernst Haeckel in 1894, reflected the long-standing two kingdoms (Plantae and Animalia) that can be attributed to Aristotle (perhaps before) and added third kingdom, Protista that included single-celled eukaryotes and bacteria (prokaryotes). Plantae  - plants (mostly autotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes, reproduction by spores)Animalia  - animals (heterotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes)Protista  - single-celled eukaryotes and bacteria (prokaryotes) Four Kingdoms (Herbert Copeland, 1956) Classification system based on:  Observation (phenetics) The important change introduced by this classification scheme was the introduction of the Kingdom Bacteria. This reflected the growing understanding that bacteria (single-celled prokaryotes) were very much different from single-celled eukaryotes. Previously, single-celled eukaryotes and bacteria (single-celled prokaryotes) were grouped together in the Kingdom Protista. But Copeland elevated Haeckels two Protista phyla to the level of kingdom. Plantae  - plants (mostly autotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes, reproduction by spores)Animalia  - animals (heterotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes)Protista  - single-celled eukaryotes (lack tissues or extensive cellular differentiation)Bacteria  - bacteria (single-celled prokaryotes) Five Kingdoms (Robert Whittaker, 1959) Classification system based on:  Observation (phenetics) Robert Whittakers 1959 classification scheme added the fifth kingdom to Copelands four kingdoms, the Kingdom Fungi (single and multi-cellular osmotrophic eukaryotes) Plantae  - plants (mostly autotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes, reproduction by spores)Animalia  - animals (heterotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes)Protista  - single-celled eukaryotes (lack tissues or extensive cellular differentiation)Monera  - bacteria (single-celled prokaryotes)Fungi  (single and multi-cellular osmotrophic eukaryotes) Six Kingdoms (Carl Woese, 1977) Classification system based on:  Evolution and molecular genetics (Cladistics/Phylogeny) In 1977, Carl Woese extended Robert Whittakers Five Kingdoms to replace Kingdom bacteria with two kingdoms, Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. Archaebacteria differ from Eubacteria in their genetic transcription and translation processes (in Archaebacteria, transcription, and translation more closely resembled eukaryotes). These distinguishing characteristics were shown by molecular genetic analysis. Plantae  - plants (mostly autotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes, reproduction by spores)Animalia  - animals (heterotrophic, multi-cellular eukaryotes)Eubacteria  - bacteria (single-celled prokaryotes)Archaebacteria  - prokaryotes (differ from bacteria in their genetic transcription and translation, more similar to eukaryotes)Protista  - single-celled eukaryotes (lack tissues or extensive cellular differentiation)Fungi  - single and multi-cellular osmotrophic eukaryotes Three Domains (Carl Woese, 1990) Classification system based on:  Evolution and molecular genetics (Cladistics/Phylogeny) In 1990, Carl Woese put forth a classification scheme that greatly overhauled previous classification schemes. The three-domain system he proposed is based on molecular biology studies and resulted in the placement of organisms into three domains. BacteriaArchaeaEukarya

The Soldier Poem Analysis - 1720 Words

Rupert Brooke’s poem ‘The Soldier’ was written at the outset of WW1, his representation of war is more propaganda like as it romanticises war, death and patriotism. Brooke never actually made it to the frontlines, so therefore he had no experience whatsoever. Wilfred Owen’s poem ‘Dulce Et Decorum Est’ was written from a firsthand perspective. He had experience from within the trenches and his representation focus’ on the sheer brutality and reality of war. Owen also challenges the perception of war within society. Eva Dobell’s poem ‘Pluck’ was written from a firsthand, female perspective. She had experience from working as a nurse and her representation is the aftermath of war and the brutal, life altering physical and mental injuries that†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬ËœWashed by the rivers, blest by suns of home’ this line has some religious significance; the words ‘Washed’ and ‘blestà ¢â‚¬â„¢ are metaphor’s that could be interpreted as the act of baptism. He has pastoral idyll; worthy of protection along with thoughts of an ‘English Heaven’ where he would have the promise of redemption. This suggests that death is idylised; ‘A pulse in the eternal mind’ suggests that the physical being is left behind on favour of a more spiritual one. Normally sonnets are written in either a Petrachan or Shakespearean styles, this poem however is a mixture of the two. It has a Petrachan structure with fourteen lines, an octave which consists of two quatrains followed by a sestet and uses an iambic pentameter. However it has a typical Shakespearean rhyming (ABABCDCD EFGEFG) and has three quatrains followed by a rhyming couplet. ‘The Soldier’ is undoubtedly a Sonnet with having fourteen lines, ten syllables with a definite rhyme. It could be suggested that Brooke’s intentional use of a sonnet was to portray a love song of all things English and England as a country. Owen uses his firsthand experience of a gas attack to bring home the harsh, brutality and reality of war. He starts his poem with a portrayal of the soldiers being ‘Bent double, like old beggars under sacks’, this simile demonstrates how unhygienic and unkempt the soldiers were. The comparison of soldiers ‘like old beggars’ suggests that the soldiers are agingShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Poem Death Of A Soldier 775 Words   |  4 Pages2014 Analysis: Death of a Solider Louisa May Alcott served as a volunteered nurse during the American Civil War, which took place in the 1860’s. It was a brutal war between the United States and the Confederate states. Alcott documented the last days of a brave solider named John. The almost thirty year old seldom spoke, uttered no complaint, asked no sympathy, but tranquilly observed what went on about him. 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Mental Health Among College Students Essay - 1724 Words

Mental health among college students has been proven to be a relevant social issue that our society faces. There are certainly a few different institutions that play a large role within the development of this social issue. The first institution, and the primary institution at play with this issue, is the higher education system. In terms of mental health and having access to resources, college students haven’t always been as lucky as they are today. One study in 2007 explains the story of Junior at Syracuse University (Kravets, 3081). Anita Rutman had a history of mental health issues; she even found herself being admitted to a mental health hospital. One morning in February, she threw herself off of the eighth floor of Boland Hall and landed on a patio and fortunately lived. However, her attempt stemmed from the university sending her letter three days prior that informed Anita that the school was planning to dismiss her because of her suicidal tendencies (Kravets, 3081). 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Bad Things That Happen To King Essay free essay sample

, Research Paper Why do bad things happen to good people? The bulk of society believes that there are no logical replies to this inquiry. The worst can go on to the best of us, for no peculiar grounds. Unfortunately, this is non ever the instance. In William Shakespeare # 8217 ; s # 8220 ; King Lear # 8221 ; , the chief character, King Lear, who claims to be # 8220 ; a adult male more sinned against than transgressing # 8221 ; , is responsible for his ain ruin ( 3.2.60-61 ) . Though a good male monarch, Lear # 8217 ; s actions do his household and land to fall apart. The wickednesss committed against King Lear are a consequence of his personal mistakes of heedlessness, sightlessness, and folly. King Lear # 8217 ; s hot pique and hasty determinations play a important function in his autumn from grace. His old age has caused him to act impetuously, without any consideration for the effects of his actions. When Lear asks his devoted girl Cordelia to show her love for him, he becomes disquieted with her because she can non set her feelings into words. We will write a custom essay sample on Bad Things That Happen To King Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page He does non recognize that she cares profoundly for him and disinherit her by stating, # 8220 ; Here I disclaim all my paternal attention, proximity and belongings of blood, and as a alien to my bosom and me hold thee from this for of all time ( 1.1.120-123 ) . # 8221 ; It is merely subsequently, when Cordelia has left him, that Lear realizes he had made a incorrect determination. In another tantrum of fury, Lear tries to assail Kent, his most loyal retainer, for back uping Cordelia. Without sing Kent # 8217 ; s wise words, Lear draws his blade and warns Kent non to come # 8220 ; between the firedrake and his wrath # 8221 ; ( 1.1.130 ) . This foolhardy behavior causes Lear to lose a valued and trusty follower. Without a uncertainty, Lear # 8217 ; s rash behavior contributes to the agony he endures at the custodies of others. Another folly displayed by Lear is that of sightlessness. He is nescient to the true feelings and purposes of his closest household members. When Regan and Goneril shower him with false congratulationss and declarations of their love, he selfishly believes them and establish his division of the land on their fallacious words. Finally, nevertheless, Lear’s bosom is broken when their true nature is exposed. Lear repeats his error of sightlessness when he fails to recognize that Regan and Goneril are plotting against him. The two sisters deviously agree to â€Å"hit together† and take full control of the land ( 1.1.332 ) . Had Lear â€Å"seen† better, he would hold realized the true purposes of his girls and saved himself from enormous heartache. Above all, Lear # 8217 ; s folly is the cause of his ruin. His unlogical determinations cause pandemonium in the land. Though he means good, Lear does non believe rationally when he decides to manus over his power to his girls before he dies. Lear was excessively speedy to step down from the throne and did non recognize that a bloody power battle would result. In add-on to losing his rubric, Lear is besides left without a place when he divides his land. Lear greatly regrets his determination when both Goneril and Regan refuse to maintain him in their places and force him to confront a awful storm without shelter. Lear is besides rather foolish when he banishes Kent for back uping Cordelia and proposing that the male monarch reconsider his determination to disinherit her. Lear subsequently wishes that he had non driven Kent off as he realises that Kent is one of the few people that respects him. Though he had good purposes, Lear ab initio made foolish determinations that subsequently caused him to endure great hurting. King Lear # 8217 ; s heedlessness, sightlessness, and foolishness provoke others to perpetrate wickednesss against him. Were it non for these mistakes, his household and land would hold continued to boom.